Licka Pljesivica Mountain

With its most beautiful northern section tucked between our 2Parks, the second longest mountain in Croatia of amazing biodiversity awaits you in the heart of the GWT2P destination.

Mountains and People

Mountains have always been a source of wonder and inspiration for us humans, but they offer us so much more! Let us remind ourselves that we have an inseparable bond with nature, an inseparable bond with mountains, because:

• they provide most of the world's freshwater - 60-80%;
• they harbor 25% of the planet's richest biodiversity hotspots;
• they are home to 23% of the world's forests;
• they cover approx. 27% of the world’s surface - and are simply beautiful.

So come, come and collect your new dose of inspiration while enjoying the splendor of our Licka Pljesevica Mountain and other mountain gems in our destination such as Medvjedak (Plitvička jezera NP), Mrsinj (Korenica), and Ljutoc (Una NP).
Link: Why Mountains matter

The United Nations General Assembly designated 11 December as “International Mountain Day”.

Licka Pljesivica

Gorgeous and powerful, Licka Pljesivica (Lička Plješivica) has been known throughout history as the most inaccessible in Croatia; it stretches uninterruptedly for about 40 km from north to the south of Croatia between the Village of Prijeboj in the Plitvice Lakes area to the Kuk Pass, but with its natural extensions, Medvjeđak in the north and Kremen and Poštak in the south, this impressive mountain range is over 100 km long and is the second longest mountain in Croatia, right after Croatia's mythical mountain Velebit (145 m). Our natural gem that impresses with its length and grandeur, belongs to the External Dinarides and has a Dinaric orientation NW – SE (Poljak, 1996, p. 425).

The view from the Plitvice Lakes National Park on the peak Gola Pljesivica

Like many other places around the world, Licka Pljesivica has also undergone name changes. The current name of the Mountain has been known since the 16th century, and some of the previous names were Gvozd and the Devil's garden (Hortus Diaboli). The present name was first mentioned by the Venetian cartographer Forlani in 1560 in the “i” form of Croatian (ikavian) dialect - Plisva. Today, we have two different spellings in use: Plješivica and Plješevica (in Bosnia); the etymology of the name Plješivica, derives from „an old Croatian adjective plješiv meaning bald or bare" (Poljak, 1996, p. 426), „bold“ just like the limestone peaks of the Licka Pljesivica.

The first description of L. Pljesivica was given by "Bishop Sebastijan Glavinic of Senj in 1669", and the first detailed map od L. Pljesivica was made by "Pavao Ritter Vitezović in 1699", a Croatian writer, historian, linguist and publisher. Thanks to its opulent natural wealth, Pljesivica has served as a center for scientific research for a very long time:

• in 1789, Balthasar Hacquet (French naturalist, ethnographer, surgeon and one of the founders of hiking) described the Mountain in his book "Oryctographia carniolica";
• in 1802, the Mountain became famous in scientific circles thanks to botanical findings collected by Pal Kitaibel (Hungarian botanist and chemist) and Franz de Paula Adam von Waldstein (Austrian nobleman, soldier, researcher and naturalist). The findings, accompanied by color pictures (K. Schultz), were published in "Descriptiones et icones plantarum rariorum Hungariae";
• in 1845, Pljesivica was explored by Saxon King Friedrich August II;
• in 1852, the Mountain was explored by Dr. Josip Schlosser (Croatian botanist and zoologist) and his associate Mr. Ljudevit Vukotinovic; their study was published in the famous "Flora Croatica";
• in 1863, it was researched by Johann Zelebor (Austrian Zoologist and Naturalist);
• since 1894, the Mountain had been studied for a longer period of time by Arpad von Degen (Hungarian botanist);
• in 1896, Pljesivica was explored by famous and renowned Croatian botanist amateur Ljudevit Rossi, one of the pioneers of Like & Velebit flora research;
• in the 20th century, the Croatian botanist of world renown, Dr. Ivo Horvat had been exploring Pljesivica over a significant period of time (Poljak, 1996, p. 426).

A scientific interest in Pljesevica’s opulent biodiversity was, and still is, the best confirmation of its great natural values that deserve to come out of a deep isolation which threatens the extraordinary web of life that the mountain supports. With our joint efforts all world's mountains can get adequate attention!

Happy News!

It is our great plaesure to note here that the Public Institution for the Protection and Conservation of Nature of Lika - Senj County (LSC), founded in 2020, now manages, preserves and protects three (3) special reserves, four (4) significant landscapes and three (3) natural monuments of LSC. Of them two are located in the area of the Licka Pljesivica Mountain: the special reserve Velika Pljesivica – Drenovaca and the significant landscape of  Bijeli Potoci – Kamensko. 

Based on the above, it is of utmost importance that the Public Institution, which operates under the supervision of the Ministry of Economy and Sustainable Development of the Republic of Croatia - the Institute for Nature Protection, has started with research activities in 2022. After a very long time, this is the first authentic attempt to undergo a broad research of the Licka Pljesivica Mountain and Licko Pounje (area of the River Una): "mapping and inventorying of vascular flora in 25 different habitat types" (JU za zaštitu i očuvanje prirode LSŽ, 2022.). An additional seven (7) research teams devoted themselves to further research:

• landscape, habitats and agrobiodiversity (the whole area);
• speleology (in areas with speleological objects);
• biospeleology (in areas with speleological objects);
• botany: mosses and ferns (at 5-10 type localities);
• mycology (at 5 – 10 type localities);
• limnology: macrozoobenthos (areas of Una Loskun and Strbacki buk, Lapacke bare, Bijeli Potoci-Kamensko, Ponor Korenicki);
• and avertebrates (at 5 – 10 type localities) (JU za zaštitu i očuvanje prirode LSŽ, 2022.).

All the above activities are part of the broad program of conducting the research and data collection that will be "the basis for declaring the areas of Licka Pljesivica and Licko Pounje protected in the appropriate category of protection in Croatia!! Bravo!!

So let's start our little walk and get to know this wonderful Mountain, maybe via our main recreational trail that stretches along one of the most impressive Dinaric limestone plateaus, the 15 km long and up to 3 km wide Una-korana Plateau, which is located half way between our 2Parks!

Relief 

The original relief elevations date back to the Oligo-Miocene period (about 33.9 to 23 million years ago). The movement of Earth's tectonic plates later led to the formation of faults, and the current relief of the Mountain, in addition to powerful tectonic movements in the Earth's interior, was shaped by various external, exogenous tectonic processes (fluviokarst and slope processes, corrosion, periglacial as well as glacial processes) (Dujmovic, 1999, p. 24).

Licka Pljesivica is most interesting due to its unusual symmetry; the highest areas of the mountain are not in the central part, but at the beginning and at the end of the mountain range with the highest elevation in Ozeblin Peak at 1657 meters. The tectonically highest parts of a ridgeline are linearly elongated in the NW-SE direction; and its present shape is the result of intense wrinkling and erosion and long-term effects of exogenous (external) morphological processes (Dujmovic, 1999, p. 24).

The northern part of the Mountain has a sharply defined ridge with prominent rocky peaks and steep slopes; it reaches its maximum height in the Gola Pljesivica Paek (1649 m) from where the uppermost line of a mountain begins, defined by the peaks of Mala Pljesivica (1576 m), Gredoviti vrh (1429 m) and Suputov vrh (1403 m) (Dujmović, 1999, p. 21).

Gola Pljesivica is an impressive bare stone peak visible from afar - in winter thanks to its white snow-topped peak and in summer thanks to its white shiny limestone. One of the main attractions of our destination, Gola Pljesivica offers one of the most stunning panoramic views in Croatia. The starting point for Gola Pljesivica ascent is Korenica and you can find more info about it under our Experiences (interactive map) and in our Events and Activities Calendar! Another natural beauty awaits you nearby; relentless exogenous geodynamic and fluvial processes are responsible for the creation of one of the most impressive limestone plateaus in the Dinarides - the beautiful Una-Koran Plateau on the NE edge of Licka Pljesivica.

Relief features change again in the southern part; the main ridge gradually disperses from the Pljesivicki kamen Peak (1616 m) and spreads into a high plain or a tableland characterized by isolated peaks, sinuous slopes, and troughs and bays with beautiful high-altitude pastures: Veliko and Malo Kamensko, Paljenica, Poljana, and Karblovica korito (Poljak, 1996, p. 425).

The relief of Licka Pljesivica is also adorned with several connected picturesque ridges, slopes, and isolated peaks. Some peaks rise above the upper forest limit as rocky heights or five interconnected mountain units: Gola Pljesivica group, Trovrh group, Ozeblin group, Javornik, Orlovaca & Brusnica group, and Lopate & Ticeva group (Dujmović, 1999, p. 21).

Further south of Suputov Peak (1403 m), the ridge gradually descends to the Skipine Gorge (1212 m), but it soon begins to rise again reaching its highest elevations at Trovrh Peak (1620 m) and Zestikovac Peak (1333 m). The Skipine Gorge is also known for its strong atmospheric appearance - this is one of only two spots on the Mountain where the famous bura wind has the most powerful gusts (Dujmovic, 1999, p. 21 i 28).

Geology

The impressive geologic age (the age of the rocks) of Licka Pljesivica, also indicates its natural value - the oldest deposits are of Triassic age (245 to 202 million years old) and are found in a narrow area of the Melinovecka draga (velly) in deposits from the Lower Triassic period containing gray laminar-bedded limestones and marly limestones, and in places the dark-grey Werfenian schists (Dujmovic, 1999, p. 18).

The highest peak of the northern part of the Mountain, the robust Gola Pljesivica, is built of bright limestone boulders whose deposits date from the Upper Cretaceous Period (about 70 million years ago); these tightly bound rocks of exceptional resistance are very rich in fossils, especially hippurites (Dujmović, 1999., str. 18).

In the immediate vicinity of Gola Pljesivica Peak, a massive and more resistant part of the otherwise soft rocks, an elongated rock, a rocky outcrop, resisted strong and long-lasting geomorphological processes and the dissolution of limestone over millions of years that eventually led to the formation of a dramatic landform. Our limestone rocky beauty is called Klanjalica and is a frequent "target" of photography lovers because it’s truly impressive and strongly dominates the landscape (mountaineers also call it the Lika Cap because of its interesting shape, which resembles the tassels on the traditional cap).

Licka Pljesivica is also significant because of two types of faults or transforming edges that occur on the Mountain (faults are fractures in Earth's crust where rocks on either side of the crack slid past each other):

• NW-SW faulting that  formed impressive bays; these elongated karst formations, which are very often beautiful wooded areas, are found at an altitude of about 1100 m parallel to the direction of the main ridges. One of them, simply named the Bay, is especially characteristic of the area of Gola Pljesivica. This beautiful bay is about 8 km long and varies in height from 1050 m to the NW, then rising gradually to 1102 m and 1196 m to the SE from where it descends to 1109 m. The bay has a mostly rocky bottom covered with massive blocks of collapsed rocks which are presumed to have formed during the last ice age when smaller, short-lived glaciers were formed on the top of the mountain. The bay is also adorned with numerous karst sink holes of various sizes.

• NW-SWE faulting that formed deep V-shaped valleys - a distinctive characteristic of the Mountain with very steep slopes and a stream running along their bottom. Four of them stand out, Bijela valley (draga) in the northern part, and in the southern part three larger ones: Zavalje, Skocaj and Melinovec valleys. The direction of the valleys was conditioned by the once powerful tectonic movements - faulting, and it is very likely that they were formed by the stream-related processes (exogenous fluviokarst processes) (Dujmovic, 1999, p. 19).

Last but not least, are diverse karst landforms present on the Mountain: numerous pits, caves, abysses, and sink holes – these cavities in the ground created by erosion and the drainage of water are distinctive karst landforms known as „vrtače“ on Licka Pljesivica and can be found almost everywhere on the Mountain, particularly on the stunning Una-Koran Plateau. Around the Gola Pljesivica Peak we can find another type of above ground karst depressions called kamenice which are commonly up to 2 m in diameter and almost always hold some water (Dujmovic, 1999, pp. 19 - 25).

Despite their great importance, mountains are still heartlessly exploited. Environmental degradation and brutal exploitation of natural resources by private interests in ruthless pursuit of profit threatens extraordinary mountain ecosystems and the future of communities who live in or near them. 

We all need to breathe, drink and eat - and the benefits of clean air, clean water and healthy, organic food come from only one, sole source – nature and its biologically diverse and healthy ecosystems. Let us never forget that!

Water

Just like all other mountains that belong to the Dinaric system, Licka Pljesivica is also predominantly built of water-permeable limestone, therefore very scarce in water resources.

The occurrence of Pljesivica's rare water sources is related to the presence of water-bearing "Triassic werfenian schists" we mentioned earlier (Poljak, 1996, p. 425), and the mere fact that their occurance is rare, clearly indicates the necessity for their adequate protection.

Licka Pljesivica thus have very little surface water; however, a lot of water passes through underground networks. In addition to the rainwater generated by the Mountain itself, which is carried into its underground by the force of gravity, Licka Pljesivica also accepts subterranean rivers from the west (Lika) side that flow under the mountain on the edge of the Korenica and Krbava fields in Croatia. These combined underground flows are then discharged into springs on the opposite, 300 m lower eastern foothills in the form of strong karst springs. In rainy seasons, for example, sinkholes often cannot accept all the water, which results in the periodic appearance of freshwater lakes on the Korenica and Krbava fields (Poljak, 1996, p. 425). The directions of the groundwater flows have yet to be determined, but the amount of water and springs that appear on the eastern side of the Mountain from Zeljava Air Base to Lohovo hills are undoubtedly in close connection with subterranean rivers on the western side. 

Among the most important water sources are Zivulja (Živulja) and Klokot on the eastern (Bosnian) side of the Mountain. Zivulja is characterized by uniquely fresh water with a specific taste, and represents a special phenomenon on the Mountain because it is the only source of surface water in the wider area, which makes it especially valuable and important for conservation. It is highly probable that the water originates from "melting of ice in several icy pits", which are located at the northern summit of Mount Licka Pljesivica, Gola Pljesivica. When it comes to the quality and quantity of spring water, the important karst spring Klokot stands out. Powerful Klokot emerges at the junction of the Una-Koran plateau and the Una river valley and forms a beautiful little river already at the source; after a short flow Klokot flows into the Una River adding it a much needed strength (Dujmovic, 1999, pp. 18 - 28).

The powerful Klokot groundwater discharge emerges from two springs, the first of which is one of Bihac's most important water supply sources, and the smaller one provides fresh water to a nearby fishpond.

Fascinating underground streams of Klokot

This beautiful karst river has all the characteristics typical of the mountain river with an average temperature of 7.5 - 10 ° C. The bottom of Klokot is rich in aquatic plants and river algae that provide a perfect habitat for freshwater crabs and juvenile fish, especially indigenous fish species, such as the brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) and the grayling (Thymallus arcticus) (Vision Production, 2014), but distinctive river features which put Klokot on the natural phenomena list are its underground waterways and the morphology of underground cave systems.

An extremely challenging and potentially dangerous cave dive has so far been successfully conducted by several domestic and foreign experts in 2014. Researchers from the Una Aquarius Center Bihac and their colleagues from the French city of Marseille have first discovered an impressive system of underwater tunnels and large galleries. The system branches off in three directions and descends steeply to the so far safely explored depth of 104.5 m where they discovered another side opening with a spacious gallery which, they assume, descends steeply into the main gallery at the end of the underwater cave system that awaits further extensive research (Vision Production, 2014).

Our main GWT2P green trail passes right next to this important spring, so enjoy Klokot's natural beauty with care and if you are an avid scuba diver, then contacting our top experts and guides from the Una Aquarius Center should be on your bucket list - check our interactive map and summer Events and Activities offer for info and contacts!

Klokot - fragile ecosystem worth protecting!

Other healthy and stronger springs on the eastern side of the Mountain include natural springs in Zavalje, Skocaj and Melinovec valleys whose watercourses also struggle with the porous karst terrain, and like all other local larger or smaller streams end their journey in the Una River.

Old Spoon Watermills

The life of rural communities has always been linked to natural water sources and streams where once dynamic life took place. Like in our case on the Geginovac mountainous stream, which flows from its source on the Mountain through Zavalje valley (draga), where wooden spoon watermills were built. The mills were equipped with spoon-shaped wooden blades in the turbine and built by either village cooperatives or individuals. Local farmers brought their grain to the mill for grinding according to an agreed schedule. The mill operated without the supervision of a miller; farmers knew how long it took for the mill to do its job and they only came later to pick up their baskets full of flour. Local streams were used for bathing, washing clothes and dishes, or for filling waterers for livestock. Fresh and cold drinking water straight from the spring was brought home in wooden water buckets for drinking and cooking; and this old tradition of using water flowing in streams lasted until "1884, when the 2-3 km long water supply system was constructed to meet the needs for sanitary and medical control in the historic Rastel complex (Dujmovic, 1999, pp. 37-38).

Watermans of Zavalje

Ever since the water supply system began its operation (which means for centuries now), residents of the Mountain villages have been paying special attention to the water supply during the dry summer months. To this day, every evening during summer a local waterman from the village of Zavalje closes the reservoir outlet valve for the tank to be filled over night, and opens it again at dawn (M. Veljaca, personal communication, Zavalje, 2012). Now, imagine how much the construction of private swimming pools or any other unsustainable form of water management in such water-sensitive karst areas threatens the secure supply of this vital resource to the local population.

Forests

Forest wealth is the main characteristics of Licka Pljesivica and its greatest natural treasure that occupies nearly „85% of the total surface area of the Mountain. The upper tree line is at 1450 - 1550 m.a.s.l.“, and the remaining surface of the Mountain is made up of mountain pastures, low-growing shrubs, and rocks in the summit regions (Dujmovic, 1999, p. 29). 

In the not-so-distant past, the mountain was adorned with a unique type of forest community - virgin forests, but sadly their habitat has been devastated by the unchecked and excessive deforestation in recent history. Considering they were positioned far from the public eye, very little attention was paid to their care and protection, but things are slowly changing for the better.

The situation began to change for the better in the 60s and 70s of the last century, when parts of the forest were protected, and from 2022 these areas have been managed and protected by the Public Institution for the Protection and Conservation of Nature of Lika - Senj County (LSC), which operates under the supervision of the Ministry of Economy and Sustainable Development of the Republic of Croatia - the Institute for Nature Protection. Two of these special areas are on the Licka Pljesivica Mountain:

• the special reserve Velika Pljesivica – Drenovaca has been protected since 1961; 3.43 ha with mixed stands of beech and fir trees of the virgin type - the only remaining area on this part of the Mountain;

• the significant landscape of  Bijeli Potoci – Kamensko has been protected since 1972; 1147.48 ha of great landscape value and for the LSC county one of the most significant memorial locations of the Second World War and the National Liberation Struggle (JU za zaštitu i očuvanje prirode LSŽ, 2022).

The significant landscape of Bijeli Potoci – Kamensko encompasses parts of the areas of Donji Lapac and Udbina municipalities in Croatia. This area of great landscape value boasts beautiful pastures and glades: Poljana, Opaljenice, Veliko and Malo Kamensko; and in the not too distant past, an exceptional artwork. From the late 50's until the Homeland War and the occupation of this areas (1991-1995), Bijeli Potoci - Kamensko was additionally enriched with truly amazing sculptures „Tifusari“ (Typhus patients) by one of the most prominent Croatian artists Vanja Radauš. Sadly, today you will only see bare concrete plinths – magnificent bronze sculptures were violently detached from their plinths and stolen by the occupiers.

Vanja Radauš (1906., Vinkovci - 1975., Zagreb), a great Croatian sculptor, painter and writer, worked on the “Tifusari” Master cycle from 1956 until 1958/9. Six deeply impressive bronze sculptures that superbly portrayed diseased, weak and skinny images of men and a woman with a child wrapped in shabby drapery, were set up in the impressive forest landscape of the Bijeli potoci - Kamensko Reserve. Sculptures were marvelously incorporated into this protected area, creating together with nature a unique ambience of contemplation and repose (Muzejski dokumentacijski centar, b.d.).

The art was once, hopefully it will be again, nicely incorporated into the beautiful forests of Mount Pljesivica, of which the mixed fir-beech forests cover about 75% of Pljesivica’s forest area (Poljak, 1996, p. 456). European beech (Fagus sylvatica) is the most widespread tall tree on Mount Pljesivica. This extraordinary long-lived hardwood is slow-growing (120 to 150 years), loves calcified, acidic, well drained, and fertile soil and in this conditions lives up to 200 - 300 years.

Two more species dominate the lush forest community of Licka Pljesivica: Silver Fir (Abies alba) and Norway spurce (Picea abies). In addition to these three species, Pljesivica boasts an abundance of other tree species, such as sessile oak (Quercus petraea), turkey oak (Quercus cerris), European Black Pine (Pinus nigra var. austriaca), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), European or common hornbeam (Carpinus betulus) and sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus), as well as elm tree (Ulmus campestris), common ash (Fraxinus excelsior), wild service tree (Sorbus torminalis), known as a natural remedy for diabetes with edible fruits which are either eaten or made into marmalade or milled into flour, and whitebeam (Sorbus aria) also known for its edible fruits which are used for juice or marmalade; and other rarer species (Dujmovic, 1999, p. 29).

And among many species of small trees and shrubs with edible fruits, leaves, and seeds that have always been a source of healthy nutrition for the local population, these species stand out:

• common hazel (Corylus avellana);
• field maple (Acer campestre L.);
• common dogwood (Cornus sanguinea);
• cornelian cherry (Cornus mas);
• hawthorn (Crataegus oxyacantha);
• blackthorn (Prunus spinosa);
• black elderberry (Sambucus nigra) (Dujmovic, 1999, p. 29).

Flora and Fauna

Although many of the previously mentioned scientists were particularly interested in a very rich and diverse flora, the Mountain's fauna is no less diverse. However, both worlds are equally vulnerable to the impacts of various human activities, more frequent and intense extreme weather anomalies, as well as the traumatic ripple effects of war not so long ago.

For the mere fact that the northern part of the Mountain is surrounded by our 2Parks, is a good indication that  Licka Pljesivica hosts equally impressive natural wealth and for that reason it deserves appropriate attention.

Flora

The Mountain's valuable composition of diverse Alpine flora and the great wealth of endemic species have attracted attention since the time of the first research. Its rocks and heaths abound with a rich flora and vegetation, and its high altitude meadows have been recognized as areas of special landscape value. Weather conditions with smaller temperature extremes, weaker winds, and earlier melting of snow provide ideal growing conditions for healthy forage grass that was used in the past by local residents for high altitude grazing of cattle (oxen).

"Mountain livestock breeding" is a uniqe and strong tradition of the Licka Pljesivica area, especially realated to the villages on the Una-Koran plateau. Lack of sufficient pastures near villages was the primary reason for seasonal and altitudinal displacement of livestock. Lowland in winter and upland in summer where herders tended the livestock for 2-3 months. Three beautiful high altitude pastures and meadows stand out in the NE part of the Mountain: Duga Luka, Prsina uvala and Dzakulinka (Dujmovic, 1999, p. 49).

Numerous alpine species and glacial relicts were found on the Mountain, and noteworthy representatives are:

• Wulfen's Primrose (Primula wulfeniana);
• Carnations (Dianthus); 
• Lady’s-slipper orchid (Cypripedium calceolus);
• Edelweiss (Leontopodium alpinum);
• Daphne alpina (the family Thymelaeaceae);
• Lesser club moss (S. selaginoides) - one of the rare and still insufficiently researched species in the Republic of Croatia grows only on the Licka Pljesivica Mountain, on moist mountain meadows and heaths (Poljak, 1996, p. 426).

Wulfen primrose

Fauna

Although equally diverse in a number of species, the fauna of Mount Licka Pljesivica was somewhat less in the focus of the scientist. Large carnivores are without doubt a special feature of the Mountain, though other animal species do not lack importance. Sadly, due to the global change in environmental conditions and the tragic regional war events in the late 20th century, as well as the long-standing and deeply rooted local hunting tradition, large mammals and other members of the Mountain fauna are in a vulnerable position.

Invertebrates

Most of the major invertebrate groups are represented on the Mountain; important cleaners and decomposers are the key part of the Mountain's biodiversity: „ they are crucial components of food webs and fulfil many ecosystems services, such as pollination, decomposition and nutrient release“ (Morley, Jones i Radford, 2014.), and here are some you can easily witness while hiking:

• numerous insects (class Insecta) - like butterflies, caterpillars and moths (order Lepidoptera), beetles (order Coleoptera), grasshoppers, locusts and crickets (order Orthoptera), dragonflies (order Odonata), earwigs (order Dermaptera), plant bugs, bed bugs, cicadas, aphids (order Hemiptera), and others;
• and the Chelicerata division - like many spider species (order Araneae), ticks, mites (class Arachnida), and many others.

Vertebrates

The overall impression is that Mountain's vertebrate animals are in good status, but considering the global state of vertebrates that are declining rapidly around the globe and without detailed scientific research, it is hard to determine the exact status of species on the Mountain.

Even though majority of wild animals will flee before you can see them simply because they can hear, see or smell us long before we hear or see them, you will still experience many harmless species while hiking through the area. We will highlight some well-known representatives (of which the first four types should be given a wide berth!!). 

Mammals

The Mountain supports a high diversity of large mammals, specifically large carnivores (Carnivora):

• brown bear (Ursus arctos)
• gray wolf (Canis lupus)

Bears and wolves are considered a keystone species, immensely important to maintaining the health, structure and balance of ecosystems, with a power to increase populations of countless species of animals and plants in them!

• Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx)
• European wildcat (Felis silvestris).

All four species of large carnivores represent EU rare, threatened or endangered species (Natura 2000 important species) and the world's protected species listed on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

Carnivores are the most diverse group of mammalian order, and some of the other, undoubtedly numerous, representatives of mammals found here are: the beech marten (Martes foina), the European polecat (Mustela Putorius), the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) the least weasel (Mustela nivalis), the European badger (Meles meles) and others.

Endangered species - wolf

Ungulates or hoofed mammals are a large and diverse group of terrestrial mammals. We will mention three representatives of the order Artiodactyla or the even-toed ungulates that stand out on the mountain: the wild boar (Sus scrofa), the red deer (Cervus elaphus) and the European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus).

The wild boar population is large and often seen seeking out food and water in mountain villages. Very intelligent and fertile, large wild boar groups or sounders can cause significant damage not only to local farmers but also to local biodiversity. Unfortunately, they are highly mobile and can easily travel  between 2 and 15km a day.

It is also worth noting several species of rodents (order Rodentia): the wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus), the European hare (Lepus europaeus), the edible dormouse (Glis glis), the bank vole (Myodes glareolus) and others.

Out of insect eating mammals (order Eulipotyphla), several species of these small valuable creatures that provide biological control of insect pests stand out: the hedgehog (family Erinaceidae), the mole (Talpidae) and the common shrew (Sorex araneus).

In addition to the above mentioned butterflies, there is one more important bioindicator species worth mentioning - bats – mammals of the order Chiroptera which groups are  slowly recovering from the trauma of war!

Reptiles

The population of reptiles (class Reptilia) of the order of scaled reptiles (Squamata) is a very diverse group on the Mountain of predominantly nonvenomous and absolutely harmless representatives. But be aware that this area is also home to venomous snakes, the most famous of which is the European horned viper (Vipera ammodytes) the most venomous snake on the Mountain, also reputed to be Europe's most dangerous snake. It is also highly likely that species of the common European adder (Vipera berus) and the meadow viper (Vipera ursinii) are present on the Mountain - both species are very rare and highly endangered in Europe.

More about important wild animal encounter tips and rules of conduct under - Helpful Tips!

Birds 

The avifauna of the Mountain is characterized by many species that have began their slow process of ecological recovery from the trauma of war; Pljesivica boasts some rare species that will delight you with their presence:

• the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) – (CR) critically endangered and strictly protected species in Croatia;
• the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) – (VU) currently classified as a vulnerable species in Croatia;
• the Eurasian goshawk (Accipiter gentilis)- (LC) no longer critically endangered in Croatia;
• the western capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) – (EN) highly endangered in Croatia;
• the tawny or brown owl (Strix aluco) – (LC) no longer critically endangered in Croatia, but still excellent bioindicators;
• the common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) – (LC) no longer critically endangered in Croatia;
• and the common starling (Sturnus vulgaris), the common blackbird (Turdus merula), and the barn swallow (Hirundo rustica) all classified (LC) no longer critically endangered in Croatia and often seen around mountain villages (Zavod za zaštitu okoliša i prirode, b.d.).

The threats to birds today are many and varied and the most severe are: destruction and degradation of habitats (modern agriculture, logging) which today threaten as many as "93% of endangered bird species" (BirdLife International, 2017.), as well as food shortage and invasive species whose importation and further spread is driven by the globalization of trade, transport and travel - all of which cause degradation of ecosystems, habitats, and the loss of indigenous species or biodiversity!

Raising Awareness

At the time when we started working on the creation of the GWT2P regional destination, thorough scientific mountain research and the assessment of the overall status of numerous plant and animal species and ecosystems, were only a dream and a sincere desire of experts and true nature lovers - and it was worth believing and persevering! As previously mentioned, almost ten years later, in 2022, the Public Institution for the Protection and Conservation of Nature of Lika - Senj County (LSC), began an extensive scientific research of the Licka Pljesivica Mountain and Licko Pounje (area of the River Una, in the border area between Croatia nad Bosnia). The end goal of this scientific research is to declare the areas of Licka Pljesivica and Licko Pounje protected in the appropriate category of protection in Croatia. Immensely important moment that will hopefully be followed on the Bosnian side of our destination, because all this activities will help that further education and raising of public awareness, particularly among the local population, gain strength and achieve great results.

Raising public awareness on nature protection issues and gaining new knowledge and a better understanding of the critical importance of mountain ecosystems is the best way to stop the unsustainable and ruthless exploitation of mountain resources, and a great way to learn - adapt to change - and apply new sustainable economic practices.

This way we also provide the opportunity for nature to regenerate and recover her natural beauty and opulent wealth of life that she shares with us!

Climate

This whole area is characterized by rather harsh and rough climate with mountain tops often hidden by clouds and long-lasting snow. Severe snowstorms accompanied by strong winds used to be a regular winter occurrence on the Mountain, summers were generally warm and pleasant with moderate temperatures, but often quite dry. Today, however, the situation is largely different due to more frequent and pronounced weather anomalies we are all witnessing.

The Mountain is also characterized by interesting and pronounced temperature fluctuations, not just diurnal (day vs. night), but also fluctuations along the foothills so we have on average lower temperatures on the W side (Korenica) and higher on the E side (Bihac). Before hitting the trail, it's important to know that the weather can change quite quickly; keep in mind that in summer temperatures cool down quickly after sunset with often present mountain breeze (Dujmovic, 1999, p. 27).

The temperature conditions on Pljesivica are very similar to those at higher altitudes in the Alps!

It is interesting to note that Scabiosa Silenfolia and Potentilla Clusiana of the alpine vegetation can be found on Pljesivica at 1,500 m.a.s.l. while at the same time in the Alps we find the same species above 1,800 meters (Dujmović, 1999, p. 27)!

Potentilla clusiana

Atmospheric circulation along the eastern and the western foothills of Licka Pljesivica is also interesting. In Korenica, winds tend to come mostly from the northwest while the Bihac side has winds of the primarily western directions. When it comes to local winds, the famous bura wind stands out; this dry, very cold northern wind characterized by violent gusts is the most important climatic element of the region. Due to its force and gustiness, bura hits different parts of the mountain with different intensity because its speed depends on the mountain relief. The powerful bura wind is born on the ridge of Licka Pljesivica, and the highest wind gusts occur between the peaks of Gola Pljesivica and Mala Pljesivica, and in the Skipine Gorge (Dujmovic, 1999, p. 28)!

Another important local wind is jugo; this vagarious south wind can reach storm force and can cause considerable damage. And since there is no shortage of winds on Licka Pljesivica, when bura and jugo subside, other local winds jump in. These winds have their own picturesque names – danik (occurs during the day) and nocnik (occurs during the night) (Dujmovic, 1999, p. 28)!

In addition to snippets about the climate, here is one more historical curiosity, namely one of the first meteorological stations in Croatia was opened in the mountain village of Zavalje! Measurements of air temperature and precipitation started back in 1852, and a bit later the air pressure measurements. Weather observers were community volunteers of various vocations such as teachers, foresters or postmen (Dujmovic, 1999, p. 58). Sadly, this old meteorological tradition has been extinguished!

Historical Snippets

Throughout long history, Mount Pljesivica often played the role of a natural defense against the assaults of myriad invaders due to its height and steep slopes, and this was particularly evident during the centuries-long invasions of the Ottoman Turks. Numerous wars and conflicts on the boundary line with the Ottoman Empire, severe human losses and material damage caused extremely harsh living conditions and a continuing deterioration of wider regional area. Wars and centuries had come and gone, borders moved many times, usually by force, sometimes by agreements, and one of the numerous agreements had left a bigger mark on the Mountain and the area that is today part of our cross-border destination.

The Peace Treaty of Sistova, which was signed in 1791 between the Habsburg Monarchy and the Ottoman Empire ended the 3-year-long war and established a new boundary line that then descended from the top of the ridge to the eastern foothill of the Mountain. The area of Plitvice Lakes, Korenica and Mount Licka Pljesivica (Lika region) was not then returned to the Croatian ban, but became part of the Military Frontier under the direct control of the Habsburgs, while Bihac and Una remained part of the Ottoman Empire (Hrvatska enciklopedija, 2021).

The whole male population of the Military Frontier was forcibly recruited into the armed forces, often with little choice but to remain and fight as professional soldiers on several fronts and through many European wars - no end in sight to a dreadful life!

Rastel Complex

During the 18th and 19th centuries, that East side of the Mountain attained a new historical significance as a place where the official border control area with the Ottoman Empire was established.

The Rastel Complex, an important trade and customs zone was established in the the village of Zavalje, then the municipal center of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy.

Rastel Complex - late 19th century, Stipe Tomljenovic, ink, 1992 (Dujmovic, 1999, p. 77)

The Rastel (Raštel) consisted of several interconnected stone buildings surrounded by a 2.5 meter high wall. The first building was built back in 1795, and the main one-story cross stone building most probably in 1877. Various officials, customs officer, and municipal adjutant who lived and worked in the Complex used the first floor, while the ground floor was used for stores for goods and a beer hall. The plateau around the Complex was a place of intense trading; everything that was bought or sold there passed through the Complex for customs and for the control by the disinfectant supervisor (Dujmovic, 1999, p. 75).

Namely, the Rastel Complex was also a veterinary-sanitary control station and the seat of medical control for people and goods coming from the territory of the Ottoman Empire!

For example, at the time of major infestation, all purchased livestock had to spend several days under the veterinary supervision in the Complex before entering the Monarchy. Also, to benefit the enhanced veterinary control, a 20 m long and 5 m wide bathing area was built in 1842, a deep plunge dip tank through which all purchased cattle had to swim for disinfection (Dujmovic, 1999, p. 77). Virtually all goods, even the mail, had to be disinfected and subjected to sanitary control.

Unfortunately, this historic complex suffered the same fate as more or less all the other historic sites in the region, it was destroyed. The seat of the "Zavalje municipality was in Rastel until 1926/27" and since then the complex had been slowly falling into disrepair; it was burned to the ground in 1942, and its remaining stone structures were taken away by different people for different purposes over the years (Dujmović, 1999, p. 76).

Matica hrvatska

At the end of this little overview about the Licka Pljesivica Mountain, one last historical snippet about one of the oldest and leading Croatian cultural institutions - Matica hrvatska - that took an active role in preserving local cultural heritage.

In 1890, a branch of the renowned Matica hrvatska was founded in the Zavalje Municipality and influenced the cultural life of the parish for over half a century (Dujmović, 1999., str. 203).

The founder and the first trustee was Mr. Stjepan Ritz, landed gentleman and a postman from Zavalje. Mr. Ritz owned postal carriages that were operating on the route between Split (a coastal town in Croatia) and Vienna (Austria), via Kordunska road that partly extended across the Una-Korana plateau - today, this section of the old rustic road is part of our main recreational trail.

A beautiful scene from the mountain village and a little invitation - nothing beats first-hand experience!

Detail from the mountain village Zavalje - The Hečimović Family yard

Enjoy Touring

Give yourself some time to enjoy the views! Ascents are possible from both sides of the Mountain, and all routes are worth the effort:

• on the side of the Republic of Croatia from the direction of Korenica - ascent to the highest peak of the northern part the Mountain, Gola Pljesivica Peak, with the most beautiful bird's eye view in Croatia;
• on the side of the Republic of Croatia from the direction of Udbina - ascent to the highest peak of the Mountain, Ozeblin Peak, with beautiful pastures and vistas;
• on the side of Bosnia and Herzegovina from the direction of Bihac - ascent to a mountain home and an excursion site; routes with nice vistas and impressive natural features.

While there, explore ancient Bihać, Korenica, and Udbina with the historic Krbava Field, it's worth it; check our Events & Activities for inspiration and useful tips for different routes!

Find your route and a guide:
Guided tours: go to our Experiences and scroll down to the interactive map. Select Sports Activities - Guided Mountaineering tours and find your guides on both sides of the border.
Self-guided tours: go to our Experiences and scroll down to the interactive map. Select Sports Activities - Mountaineering tours and select your route. 
Check safety rules: make sure you get familiar with important safety rules you will find under our Rules and Regs. Safety First!! 

Just a short reminder before you go:

• explore the mountain on foot, on a bike, or a horse - help reduce harmful car emissions;
• please take litter with you - never leave garbage in nature;
• rare and endangered plant and animal species are important - respect and protect Earth's wildlife;
• take care to place all recyclable items in proper receptacles - recycle;
• bring reusable water bottles - avoid highly detrimental plastics;

Join our Green Mission, our partnership plays a key role!

References 

1. BirdLife International (2017). A range of threats drives declines in bird populations. ˂http://datazone.birdlife.org/sowb/casestudy/a-range-of-threats-drives-declines-in-bird-populations>
2. Dujmović, I. (1999). Povijest zavaljske župe. Udruga umjetnika August Šenoa, Zagreb
3. Hrvatska enciklopedija, mrežno izdanje (2021). Svištovski mir. Leksikografski zavod Miroslav Krleža, Zagreb. <http://www.enciklopedija.hr/Natuknica.aspx?ID=59096>.
4. JU za zaštitu i očuvanje prirode LSŽ. (2022, June 6). Kartiranje i inventarizacija vaskularne flore Ličke Plješivce i Ličkog Pounja. JU za zaštitu i očuvanje prirode LSŽ. ˂https://zop-lsz.hr/2022/06/06/kartiranje-i-inventarizacija-vaskularne-flore-licke-pljesivce-i-lickog-pounja/>
5. Morley, E. L., Jones, G. and Radford, A. N. (2014, February 7). The importance of invertebrates when considering the impacts of anthropogenic noise. The Royal Society. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.2683
6. Muzejski dokumentacijski centar (n.d.). Ratne štete na muzejima i muzejskoj građi u Hrvatskoj. Retrieved 2022, July 16, from: ˂http://ratne-stete.mdc.hr/print/print.aspx?gradNo=48>
7. Poljak, Ž. (1996.). Hrvatske planine. Golden marketing, Zagreb, pp. 425 - 426
8. Vision Production (2014, June 5). Rijeka Klokot - Bihac - Bosnia & Herzegovina (Dokumentarni filmovi o prirodi) [Video]. Youtube. ˂https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aL00m6ZCOKQ>
9. Zavod za zaštitu okoliša i prirode (MINGOR) (2017, December 18). Važeći crveni popisi u Republici Hrvatskoj. ˂https://www.haop.hr/hr/tematska-podrucja/prirodne-vrijednosti-stanje-i-ocuvanje/ugrozenost-vrsta-i-stanista/crveni-1>