Korenica

Discover the ancient settlement located at the foot of the mighty Licka Pljesivica Mountain.

Free From AI LLM! All written works on greenwaytour2parks.com are the product of a human being. If you find a misprint, rest assured it was made by and will be corrected by a genuine human being.

Korenica Through History

Under more favorable historical circumstances, Korenica could have welcomed you today with preserved and impressive prehistoric and medieval heritage. Unfortunately, brutal historic events proved to be rather frequent and destructive in nature leaving deep traces on overall quality of life and the ability to protect cultural heritage.

We believe that you will gladly come to explore a settlement situated under the highest peak of the northern section of the magnificent Mount Licka Pljesivica when you learn a little about Korenica's (pre)history. 

At the beginning of this little walk through history, it is useful to remember that interpretations of historical events, especially ancient ones, are most often just different interpretations of them, based on one of three historical sources: material, written, and oral sources or oral tradition and mythology. Who will interpret and how, depends on the owners of the heritage, who should take responsible care of it.

Prehistory

Thanks to a range of new scientific disciplines and cross-disciplinary research, we're able to create far more accurate and integrated picture of our regional prehistory - and that prehistory was anything but primitive.

Illyrians – Illyricum

The name itself is Roman, yet long before Rome became a republic and set its sights on conquering the tribes and ethnic groups of the Italian peninsula - known today as the Apennine Peninsula - on the eastern shores of the Adriatic already flourished highly organized and advanced culture and civilization of the Illyrians about which new knowledge and awareness are continually emerging.

The prehistoric Illyrian civilization had structured societies and settlements, as well as developed trade and established trade routes. It had its own script, art, and highly developed crafts, a unique mythology and religion, its own sanctuaries and knowledge of astronomy. They were skilled in agriculture and animal husbandry, and widely known as a powerful naval force - renowned in both trade and shipbuilding (the famous Illyrian galleys), as well as in construction and military skills.

Yapodi

This wider region - generally bounded by the rivers Kupa and Una on the north and north-east side, and by Mount Velebit and the Vinodol area in the hinterland of Crikvenica on the Adriatic coast – was inhabited by Yapodi. In both numbers and strength, the Yapodi stood equal to their neighboring ethnic groups, Delmatae, Liburnians, and Histri, all of whom belonged to the same prehistoric Illyrian population.

The archaeological legacy of Yapodi is rich - or at least once was. Research to date reveals a highly developed tradition of agriculture, mining, and metallurgy with archaeological focus in Lika region centered mainly on their necropolises, funerary customs and rituals, as well as on the remains of their hillfort settlements (gradine). Sadly, much of the prehistoric material heritage has been destroyed, yet based on preserved and authenticated metal artifacts from these necropolises, scholars speak of a Yapodian culture that thrived in Lika “from the Late Bronze Age until the end of the old era” (Raunig, 2004, p. 20).

Curiously, weapons - so commonly found among the Delmatae - have not been discovered in Yapodian necropolises. Instead, archaeologists unearthed numerous bronze and amber objects: head ornaments, buckles, pendants, belt fittings, and similar items, all pointing to the high level of Yapodian craftsmanship (Olujić, 2007, pp. 194–198).

Among the most striking discoveries are head coverings, tasseled caps, considered the forerunners of today’s traditional Lika caps.


Alongside elements of traditional folk costume, the people of Lika, and Croats in general, still cherish the prehistoric musical heritage: the ancient vocal technique of ojkanje, as well as rera and ganga in the southern regions. The same applies for the prehistoric method of dry-stone wall building and the transfer of important oral tradition. Sadly, much of this prehistoric heritage is gravely endangered.

Illyrian Monumental Style of Megalithic Polygonal Masonry

Unrecognized and unprotected, many prehistoric Illyrian archaeological artifacts have been destroyed. Immovable and most often carved in stone, those artifacts were lost largely through ignorance, and evil intentions. Fortunately, some artifacts have survived across the wider region. Fascinating megalithic structures are still being discovered today, and those newly unearthed layers confirm the use of technologically very demanding construction methods - long before antiquity. This was confirmed by the work of geologist Dr. Goran Glamuzina, who studied the remains of a “monumental Illyrian Bronze Age structure in the area of Drinovci in Herzegovina, which he identified as the remains of Cyclopean walls constructed in an architectural style typical of the Illyrians”. This style is known as the “Illyrian monumental style of megalithic polygonal masonry,” characterized by sloped trapezoidal blocks with multiple sides in a wall. According to Dr. Glamuzina, the construction was “planned and employed advanced techniques, knowledge, and tools to achieve precise leveling of wall surfaces and seamless blending of massive stone boulders”. In that prehistoric age, the Illyrians skillfully handled stone blocks weighing several tons (Glamuzina, 2017).

Hillfort Type of Settlement

Within the Japodian territory, two main types of settlements stand out: hillforts (gradine) and stilt houses (sojenice). The latter - special stilted settlements raised on wooden posts - were built along the River Una in the Bihac Valley. Yet it is the hillfort settlement, characteristic of the Illyrians, that represents one of the most intriguing and impressive forms of prehistoric construction and architecture. Built on elevated ground that was easier to defend and secure, hillforts typically consisted of two core sections: “the upper town, or gradina, and the terraced slopes below the hillfort” (Marijan, 2011, p. 177).

The upper town, or gradina, was situated at the highest point, enclosed by massive megalithic defensive walls. For instance, the remains of the megalithic walls at the agglomeration of Osanici near Stolac reach “a height of as much as six meters” (Marijan, 2011, p. 180). This upper part of the settlement primarily served a public function, containing structures of a “defensive, administrative, and sacral or religious nature” (Marijan, 2011, p. 177).

The lower terraced slopes formed the second section, comprising “a system of settlement terraces for the construction of residential, craft-economic, and other public buildings, as well thoroughfares and the like” (Marijan, 2011, p. 181). The advanced character of these communities is evident, and confirmed by findings such as “a depot with items of goldsmith’s craftsmanship” found on the terraces at Osanici (Marijan, 2011, p. 184).

These two sections were interconnected by “vertical and horizontal thoroughfares”, forming a single, integrated unit that likely reflected a “highly cohesive social community” (Marijan, 2011, p. 182). As Marijan notes, the continuity of this “model of life organization in hillfort settlements” can be traced from “the Eneolithic and Early Bronze Age all the way until the arrival of the Romans,” at numerous sites throughout our region (Marijan, 2011, p. 182).

Unfortunately, many Illyrian hillforts have suffered destruction, and that, as Marijan warns, can “lead to completely erroneous conclusions.” The example of Osanici alone points to “extraordinarily high standards of cultural development,” reflected in the construction techniques and way of life within the hillfort settlement, “in spatial, organizational, cultural, and indeed civilizational terms” (Marijan, 2011, p. 184).

The very same topographic sites in Lika where the Japodes once built their fortified hillforts and settlements were later reused, first by “Roman guard posts protecting key points along Roman roads,” and centuries afterward by Croatian noble communities during the Middle Ages (Kruhek & Horvat, 2009, p. 248). Some of these fortified locations include: “Barlete, Novi, Divoselo, Vrebac, Bilaj, Medak, Raduc, Kukljic, Ploca, Lovinac, Pavlovac, Mogoric, Ostrovica, Grebenar, Pocitelj, Ribnik, and others” (Kruhek & Horvat, 2009, p. 245).

From this prehistoric period, an impressive legacy remains, and it is worth mentioning at least a few of the most important sites in Croatia.

The rich and invaluable site of Vučedol, near Vukovar, testifies to the highly developed Vučedol culture of the late 4th and 3rd millennia BCE. This was the time of “the Sumerian period in Mesopotamia, the Old Kingdom in Egypt, and early Troy” (Muzej vučedolske kulture, n.d.). The flourishing Vucedol culture possessed advanced astronomical knowledge and created the oldest known Indo-European calendar, named Orion, some 4,600 years ago, a ceramic bowl with the constellations of the northern hemisphere for all four seasons (Grad Vinkovci, n.d.). The Vucedol population had developed and organized settlements, used metal mining and processing technologies, they had the first serial production of metal objects, and used four-wheeled wagons on theirtrade routes - all within the prehistoric Eneolithic period (Muzej vučedolske kulture, n.d.).

Varvaria, the prehistoric settlement near Bribir, with its megalithic structures and Bronze Age finds, reveals a “high technological and artistic level of development.” Its people maintained extensive trade with “the Greeks, Phoenicians, and the populations of the Apennine Peninsula” and exercised maritime dominance that underpinned their economic and political power between c. 6000 to 129 BCE (Varvaria – Breberium – Bribir, n.d.).

Turanj-Ricul, a prehistoric underwater site from the Middle Bronze Age (around 3,500 years ago) in the Pasman Channel, contains monumental “structures of settlements and harbors, along with thousands of valuable artifacts, all attesting to the highly developed social organization of its population” (Zadarski.hr, 2015.). 

The archaeological site of Gradac, near Bapska near Ilok, dating back almost 6,500 years, preserves the remains of a “large prehistoric masonry oven with plastered walls and a fireplace set into the floor of a dwelling; this prehistoric system of central heating represents a unique case in the available scholarly literature” (Hemen, 2013). As archaeologist Dr. Marcel Buric emphasizes, “6,500 years ago, the area of Bapska, and indeed other regions of Croatia, ranked among the most advanced in Europe” (Hemen, 2013). And with each passing day, something new, impressive, and prehistoric is discovered.

Two and a Half Centuries of Illyrian Struggles with Rome

It took Rome – the world’s first totalitarian state – a very long time to bring the land of the Illyrians under its control. Strategically vital, the eastern Adriatic coast offered Rome a firmer grip on the Mediterranean, a wealth of natural resources, and, equally important, a source of human potential.

At the height of its power, Rome fought the Illyrians for no less than two and a half centuries. Major changes came only with the campaigns of Octavian, who between 35 and 33 BCE launched a military operation in Illyricum. It was then that he finally subdued the formidable Delmatae and advanced into the Illyrian interior, conquering the strategically important Yapodian territory as a base for further incursions into southern Pannonia (Olujić, 2007, pp. 71–103). By 27 BCE, Rome had transformed from republic into empire; the Senate renamed Octavian as Augustus, the first Roman emperor. From that moment, the empire’s focus shifted decisively to the eastern Adriatic – onto the territory of the Illyrians.

The Illyrians were granted autonomy and civic rights; a large portion of their male population became a driving force within the Roman legions, and more than a few Illyrians rose to the rank of Roman emperor.

Antiquity

The clash of two completely different worlds –of spirituality and of life’s very meaning – ended in the 1st century CE with the surrender of the Illyrian leader Bato the Daesitiate, who had led the Great Illyrian Uprising from 6 to 9 CE, known also as the Batonian War (Mesihović, 2018). In the aftermath, Illyricum was divided into Pannonian and Dalmatian parts, with the area of today’s Korenica, together with the rest of the Yapodian lands, falling under the Dalmatian part (Olujić, 2007, pp. 71–103). Divide et impera!

Although struck by centuries of attacks and battles, the Yapodes and the Illyrians in general never forgot their traditions and customs. The esteemed archaeologist Dr. Branka Raunig dedicated nearly her entire career to researching the Yapodes of the Bihać Valley, and she herself points out that all material evidence confirms that the Yapodes kept their culture alive and developed it over a very long period of time. Despite the successful Romanization of part of the upper layer of Yapodean society, Raunig confirms that “there were no significant changes in the culture of the Yapodes, not even during the long-lasting Roman occupation” (Raunig, 2004, p. 11).

The traumas were already immense at that time, and unfortunately, many more followed in our long history, yet memories do not fade despite - condemnation, or rather the prohibition of remembrance!

Damnatio memoriae, Memoria damnata ili Memoria accussare

The term damnatio memoriae is most commonly used, although it is relatively recent; however, the “set of ancient practices” of erasing individuals and entire communities from memory was strongly present in antiquity. Although there is no evidence of “formalized and standardized processes,” there is abundant evidence of the brutal Roman “practice of erasing from memory and obliterating traces of existence, directed at monuments, written records, as well as human bodies” (Omissi, 2016).

In regions such as ours, burdened with violent socio-political upheavals, the sanctions or prohibitions of memory have been present since prehistory and continue to this day, accompanying “the shifts of opposing ideologies as well as the overthrow of rulers and authorities.” The cultural heritage of Dalmatia and the eastern Adriatic coast in general was particularly targeted by these practices over a very long period of time (Fisković, 2007).

Medieval Times

The theory of a great migration of peoples between the 7th and 9th centuries CE – including that of the Croats and the early medieval Slavs – only gained traction in the nation-creating era of the 19th century, and was never supported by evidence. It existed solely as a hypothetical construct that is no longer relevant in recent historiography.

As Croatian historian and eminent medievalist Dr. Neven Budak explained in an interview for N1, there were no great migrations; rather, it is more likely, he notes, that only identities were transferred, which various peoples in our lands gradually adopted (N1, 2019, 28:53). In the same noteworthy and educational program, Dr. Budak emphasizes that, unfortunately, human beliefs change with great difficulty, while scientific findings struggle to reach textbooks and school curricula – and thus the wider public (N1, 2019, 28:26).

Continuity of Existence

Due to the range of new scientific disciplines, we are creating a more complete and certainly more integrated picture of our region. Alongside culturology, forensic anthropology, linguistics, mineralogy, and osteology, there is also genetic genealogy, which focuses on the study of haplogroups, particularly Y-DNA haplogroups transmitted through the male line. Scientific discoveries concerning haplogroups are regularly updated on the Eupedia website, and they confirm that genetically identical populations have been present in our regions since prehistory. This refers to the indigenous haplogroup I, considered the oldest major haplogroup in Europe, and likely the only one to have originated on the continent itself (Eupedia, n.d.).

Haplogroup I derives from a “pre-glacial refuge in the western Balkans dating back some 25,000 years,” and recent research confirms that the majority of men in Croatia today - almost 49% - belong to haplogroup I, the so-called “Old Europeans.” The second most common is haplogroup R1a, present in 27% of the population, which has existed in these areas for some 5,000 years, having arrived from the region of southern Russia (the Ukrainian glacial refuge). The third is haplogroup R1b, at 7%, which reached this area from western Asia about 10,000 years ago. More than three-quarters of Croatian men are therefore likely descendants of the Old Europeans who entered this territory “before and after the last Ice Age.” However, like nearly all other European populations, ours also represents an “exceptional genetic mixture” (Primorac, Marjanović, Rudan, Villems & Underhill, 2020, p. 10).

During the post-glacial recolonization, one branch of haplogroup I migrated northward from the Balkans toward Scandinavia, leading to the present-day distinction between haplogroups I1 (Scandinavia) and I2 (Balkans). Cornelis George Boeree, an American psychologist at Shippensburg University and creator of the Lingua Franca Nova language, analyzed scientific data on the distribution of Y-DNA haplotypes and their connection to Indo-European languages. He states that “the original Balkan I peoples became the Illyrians, Daco-Thracians, and Greeks,” further emphasizing that the I2 population represents the Proto-Indo-Europeans (Boeree, 2013).

Dux Croatorum - Duke of the Croats, Regnum Croatorum - Croatian State

While genes changed relatively little, socio-political contexts shifted far more frequently. The medieval period was marked by turbulent, often brutal, transformations in society and politics. During the early Middle Ages, various tribes were gradually assimilated into emerging European kingdoms, and this was also the period in which the names of nearly all European nations were created.

The first reliable mention of the name Croat appears in the mid-9th century in a charter of Duke Trpimir, preserved in a transcript from the late 16th century. The document carries two possible dates – 852 and 840 – but also casts doubt about its authenticity due to the late transcription. However, the indisputable evidence is preserved in the stone inscription of Trpimir’s successor, Duke Branimir, who used the same ruling title dux Croatorum – Duke of the Croats, as well as the phrase Regnum Croatorum – Croatian State (Božić, 2020).

The origin of the name itself is a complex question, today studied through an interdisciplinary approach. What is certain, however, is that “the continuity of the name Croat exists even before the period of Croatian ethnogenesis” (Matasović, 2019).

Scholars now agree that the name Croat primarily had a territorial meaning. The toponym hrvat in the wider Dalmatian area gradually evolved into a regional or territorial designation for a land or state. From there, it was first applied as the plural name for a tribe, then for an ethnic group, and eventually developed into today’s national name – Croats (Božić, 2020).

It is therefore highly likely that the term hrvat, recorded during the Early Middle Ages across Eastern, Southern, and Central Europe, can be linked to a specific Proto-Slavic expression denoting a “fortified place” (Božić, 2020).

Constant Shifts in Socio-Political Contexts

Harsh medieval circumstances often forced nations into various alliances, and Croats and Hungarians, unlike many others, forged exceptionally close ties that lasted for eight centuries. This began in 1102 with the conclusion of the Croatian-Hungarian Pacta Conventa, at which point the Korenica area also became part of the Croatian-Hungarian Kingdom. Throughout this long period, which extended until 1918, both nations endured hardship and challenges, yet despite adversity they succeeded in building an “impressive artistic heritage” together (Holjevac, 2020).

The Korenica area, like the rest of Croatia, suffered heavily during these times. Among the invaders who ravaged this land were the Mongols who managed to destroy all settlements in the “lowlands” built under hillforts, like the Mrsinj fort (Bogović, 2016, pp. 42–43).

In 1241, the Mongols defeated the army of the Croatian-Hungarian King Bela IV and subjugated all of eastern Hungary. The king fled with his family into Croatia, but the Mongols followed in relentless pursuit leaving behind a horrid trail of devastation and human suffering along their path from Zagreb toward Trogir and Split, including parts of our present-day GWT2P regional tourist destination (Klaić, 1982, pp. 251–252).

Districtus de Korenica

The oldest mention of the name Korenica, also the name of the homonymous seat of the district (districtus de Korenica) in the Krbava County is found in a Latin document from 28th November 1468 when Korenica belonged to the Kurjakovic family. Historical records also suggest that there was a citadel built on a tallish mound close to the village Kalebovac on the Gradina hill at the site of the present-day Korenica, as well as a suburban settlement inhabited with craftsmen and tradesmen (Hrvatska enciklopedija, n.d.). Numerous churches and material remains also suggest that Korenica, and the entire Lika area, were experiencing their prosperous period before the arrival of the Turks. 

Ottoman Empire

During a very long time this part of Croatia served as a Habsburg outpost in the defense of central Europe against the Ottoman invasions. This was largely due to difficult historical circumstances but also badly drawn treaties. Among many settlements that fell into the hands of the invaders was also Korenica, which was conquered in 1527 (Hrvatska enciklopedija, n.d.).

Without a doubt, this was one of the most traumatic periods in the history of Korenica and Croatia. During the Ottoman conquest of the 16th century, the suffering, both human and material, was so immense that the very demographic structure of this region was drastically altered!

In times to come, this demographic change will be the cause of new and terrible sufferings in Korenica, Croatia, and the region. Indigenous Catholic people fled Turkish raids threatened by continued suffering and destruction. In the period between 1523 and 1526 a significant part of the indigenous Croat population emigrated from their native land and the Turks started to colonize the Krajina and Lika region. They forcibly settled this area with tormented orthodox population from already conquered eastern Balkan territories (Hrvatska enciklopedija, n.d.).

Over three centuries, starting with the earliest conquest in the 1350s, the Ottomans employed forced population transfers (in Turkish sϋrgϋn), resettling thousands of individuals, even whole communities, in both directions between the Asian and European parts of the empire (Şeker, 2013.). Sometimes these transfers were voluntary, sometimes stimulated by money and privileges, but mostly they were forced transfers of suffering people who were at the disposal to the ruling power in building an ever-growing imperial state.

An important strategic position and various borders that stretched across this area for several centuries caused frequent war conflicts and grave human suffering, such as the one that took place on the Krbava field near Udbina.

In the immediate vicinity of Korenica, in the area that now administratively belongs to the municipality of Udbina, the tragic Battle of Krbava took place between the Kingdom of Croatia and the Ottoman Empire.  On 9 September 1493, Croatian feudal army led by Ban Emerik Derencin intercepted the Ottoman forces led by Hadim Yakup Pasha, sanjak-bey who were looting, murdering and robbing across Croatia and other territories.  

The Ban Derencin’s tactic to face a much more trained and armed Turkish army in an open battle proved tragically wrong. Although there was a wiser option of an ambush in the gorges proposed by the noble Ivan Frankopan Cetinski, the Ban rejected it and led his men to the clearing of the Krbava Field, causing a terrible loss of tens of thousands human lives and the defeat of the Croatian army.

The fierce battle was fought chest against chest with bladed weapons and edged agricultural tools, leaving behind a shocking scene. It is estimated that the battle was responsible for the deaths of 10,000 - 13,000 Croats and 1,000 Ottomans (CHM, 2003). Since then, the Krbava Field became known as the "Bloody Field".

The Croatian struggle for survival and defense against the horrible incursions of the Ottoman army and their further penetrations in Europe has not gone unnoticed by other European countries. 

Unfortunately, due to the power struggles within Europe and the Croatian Kingdom itself, the fight against the Ottomans was often left to the Croatian side alone, resulting in terrible human suffering and general devastation. 

Croats suffered in yet another major battle, the Battle of Mohács in 1526. The Hungarian nobility and the Croatian contingent from Slavonia were then heavily defeated by the Ottomans, and the king of Hungary and Croatia Louis II killed - in an attempt to escape (Hrvatska enciklopedija, 2021). Most severely affected by a heavy military defeat, both the Croatian and Hungarian nobility looked for ways to effectively defend against the growing threat - the Ottoman invasion. In such circumstances the Croatian Parliament met at the end of 1526 and voted to enter into Treaty of Alliance with Austria and to elect Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg for the King. Ferdinand was crowned on 1 January 1527 at Cetin. Both kingdoms soon became part of the Habsburg Monarchy as associated kingdoms, that is, as territories with a special status and their own parliaments but still with less sovereign rights and autonomy (Macan, 1992, pp. 123 -127).

Military Frontier

The dreadful life continues until the Austro-Turkish war (1683 - 1699) when nearly the entire Lika region was liberated from the Turks. Unfortunately, after the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 Korenica was not returned to the Croatian Ban, but became part of the Military Frontier, first as part of the Lika Frontier Regiment and from 1765 as part of Otocac Frontier Regiment (Hrvatska enciklopedija, n.d.). Not a good outcome, namely the Military Frontier remained under the direct rule of the Habsburgs whose administration introduced new and heavy obligations for frontiersmen, forcing all local men aged 16 to 60 to serve.

The service was cruel, the smallest offenses were severely punished and very soon the liberation from the Turks was seen as passing from one slavery to another which caused many mutinies in Lika region. An example and the extent of sheer cruelty is best described in an event that took place in 1848 at the time of the Feast of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Klanac in Lika region when Mr. Ante Starcevic, Doctor of Philosophy met a young man Filip Baricevic, who lost both arms.

The Frontier soldier Filip Baricevic complained about the violence and injustice of some Austrian officers to higher military authorities. Frontier officers accused of brutality then summoned him to military command in Karlovac where they cut off his left arm in revenge. The man who works his land to ensure food for himself and his family cannot survive without his arms, but when he complained again of their cruelty - they cut off his right arm (HRT, 2018).

The hard life lasted for more than two hundred years through which the Habsburgs retained complete civilian and military authority, and during which quality education and the development of local economy, crafts, and trades remained only a dream. Population transfers continued to take place and while the part of the indigenous Croatian population sought refuge in migration, there were some others who settled here. Tens of thousands of Orthodox population who were dissatisfied with their status in the Ottoman state came to serve the Harsburgs as border guards. Forced or voluntary displacement of people that doomed us to a terrible future.

Austro-Hungarian Empire

A new upheaval occurred in 1867, when the centuries-old relationship between Croatia and Hungary changed significantly. With the conclusion of an agreement between the Habsburgs and Hungary, the short-lived state union of Austria-Hungary was established, however, territorially crippled and disunited Croatia did not manage to become a third state-legal unit, but a year later, in 1868, Croatia gained a unique status in the Habsburg Empire. The Croatian-Hungarian Agreement was concluded in 1868, which regulated the position of Banska Hrvatska as an autonomous province with the characteristics of statehood within the Hungarian half of Austria-Hungary. The Croatian-Hungarian Settlement was concluded in 1868, which regulated the position of Banska Hrvatska as an autonomous province with attributes of statehood, sovereignty, within the Hungarian half of the Empire (Holjevac, 2020.).

Dr. Ante Starcevic

Born in the village of Zitnik near Gospic on May 23, 1823, Ante Starcevic was a genuine son of the Lika region and one of the greatest leaders in Croatian history. The ideologist of Croatian state sovereignty, a Doctor of Philosophy and writer, Ante Starcevic was a true liberal, patriot and supporter of freedom, justice, and equality. 

Although born in the turbulent Military Frontier and the witness to years of mistreatment, oppression and the consequent rise of rebellion, Dr. Ante Starcevic was not a supporter of wars and other armed conflicts because he believed that through conflicts people easily lose their rights and fundamental freedoms. He considered arbitrary power and decisions of either rulers or the people unacceptable and advocated a diplomatic approach and a vital role of Parliament where elected representatives of the people have a mandate to protect and promote people’s rights and oversight the implementation of laws. Croatia entered into various mutually binding treaties of its own free will and on the basis that the terms of those treaties serve national interest. If the rights of the people were violated, the affected party had the right to terminate the treaty by a decision of the Croatian Parliament as the representative body of the people whose rights were being violated (HRT, 2018).

Through his years of public life he was often alone as a politician, without the support of his fellow parliamentarians to improve understanding of the role of the Parliament and the importance, value and impacts of individual and the nation-state sovereignty.

Among other things, Dr. Ante Starcevic left behind an extremely important legacy and recommendations derived from years of political experience. Particularly noteworthy are those related to the interrelationship between nations and states in the turbulent region of SE Europe: freedom (of nations), equality (of citizens) and brotherhood of all people, as well as values on which the Croatian state should rest: personal freedom, freedom of religion, freedom of thought written and alive (HRT, 2018).

Decisions that have detrimental impacts on the lives of people and nations are easily made in times of almost continuous war conflicts, such as the one that raged between 1914 and 1918 - the First World War or the Great War leaving behind millions of dead. Former centuries-old bitter enemies are now allies in creating a new world order.

Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes

Chaotic events continue as well as the era of extremely difficult international relations. In 1918, after defeat in the First World War, the Austria-Hungary was dissolved. Following the decision by the Croatian Parliament to leave the Monarchy and enter into the new State, Korenica is now in the short-lived State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. At the same time Italy began invasion of the Croatian Adriatic coast and in such chaotic conditions certain members of the Croatian Parliament sped up the unification act of December 1, which, instead of equitable unification, paved the way for the creation of a unitary state. The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was a form of ethnic (Serbian) homogenization, aiming to build a fully unified and centralized system of government, with ultimate goal in creating a unitary state, which will be from 1929 known as the Kingdom of Yugoslavia (Macan, 1992., str. 392-398).

This is a period in which the great Croatian politician, writer, translator and publicist uttered his famous words: “Do not rush like geese into the mist.” Unfortunately, Stjepan Radic remained almost completely alone in his efforts to make members of the Parliament aware that mutual relations and the political position of each concerning state must be agreed upon by all parties before signing the formal Unification Treaty. It was then that he made his famous speech in the Croatian Parliament, but on November 24, 1918 he was supported by only a few members of the Parliament, just like his great predecessor, Dr. Ante Starcevic once was - a lone voice in the wilderness.

Since 1922, Korenica was a kotar (lat. Processus) a territorial administrative unit within the Primorsko-Krajiska district, and after the devious decision to subdivide now Kingdom of Yugoslavia into a system of nine bantes, provinces (cro. Banovina) at the expense of national borders, Korenica was part of the Sava Banovina (Hrvatska enciklopedija, n.d.). Although one of the micro periods without wars, Korenica and Lika suffer from pervasive poverty due to frequent wars and long periods of economic decline.

As if the terrible population loss through far too many armed conflicts was not enough, the widespread poverty was then a second major cause of population loss - the mass transatlantic migration from which some communities in Lika region have never recovered.

Unfortunately, peace did not last long. The brutal Second World War lasted from 1939 to 1945 with tens of millions dead. The main cause of a new military conflict between the members of the Axis powers (Germany, Italy, Japan and allies) and the Allied powers (Great Britain, Soviet Union, United States, France and allies) was the "discontent" of certain countries (especially Germany, as well as Italy and Japan) with the new world order established after the First World War, that is with the loss of previously brutally conquered territories, colonies.

Independent State of Croatia

Numerous nations that gradually lost certain parts of their territory and sovereign rights are easily seduced by the prospect of regaining the lost territory and sovereign rights, as happened to Croats in 1941. In the midst of the April War and the collapse of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, the Independent State of Croatia (ISC) was formed within the Axis order and under the military-political patronage of Germany and Italy.

But the true face of the state soon came to light. In less than a month from its proclamation in 1941, the ISC passed the Racial Laws and began cruel persecutions and executions, and already on May 18, 1941 it signed the treasonous Treaties of Rome and easily handed over to Mussolini's Italy, the same Italy that unsuccessfully pounced on Croatia's Adriatic coast in 1918, a substantial part of the Croatian coast and a large number of islands (Klasic, Bukovcan, 2021).

It didn't take long for an explosion of indignation and revolt, and that revolt resulted in a massive anti-fascist resistance by the Croats who were able to establish, in the conditions of Hitler's enormous military superiority, the First Armed Anti-fascist Resistance Unit in Europe. From that partisan unit, which was founded by 72 Croats, 3 Serbs and 2 Slovenes in the forest Brezovica near Sisak on June 22, 1942, emerged the most massive resistance movement in Europe (Vlada HR, 2021).

About 500,000 male and female citizens of Croatia took part in the organized anti-fascist struggle in Croatia and 230,000 Croatian soldiers fought in the units of the People's Liberation Army (52 Croatian brigades, 17 divisions, and even 5 corps, out of 11!), and the whole resistance was under the leadership of J.B. Tito, revolutionary, statesman, born in 1892 in the Croatian rural family in Kumrovec, Croatian Zagorje. For the sake of comparison, both Croatia and France were countries with strong partisan movements and the same number of partisans - with Croatia home to about 4.00 million people and France to 55.00 million (Prerad, Suvalic, 2021)!!

In addition to becoming one of the victorious nations in the Second World War, Croatia also regained at least part of its lost territory - its islands and the coast. 

Like any other evil-induced war, this one also brought tremendous suffering to people everywhere, including the inhabitants of Korenica, which was under the occupation of the Italian and German armies until March, 1945, when it was liberated. The ISC disappeared after the military defeat of Germany in May 1945, and part of the partisans began the brutal execution of the defeated ISC army. The seeds of hatred, which have been systematically cultivated since the Ottoman period, through the Military Frontier and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, were gaining new momentum. 

From 1945 Korenica was with the rest of the Croatia a part of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia, which in 1963 changed its name to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 

The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was composed of six republics and two autonomous provinces, and from the very beginning it was burdened with unresolved issues that had accumulated since 1918. Strict centralism and state–party control, along with the denial of an equal status and position to all peoples within the federation, led to its inevitable end. Unfortunately, unlike other nations of Europe, Yugoslavia was not destined to gradually and peacefully dissolve into sovereign countries at the negotiating table. Despite the constitutionally guaranteed right to independence and sovereignty, the breakup of Yugoslavia was marked by a brutal military aggression, directed primarily against Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina

Republic of Croatia 

After less than fifty years of life within the Yugoslav federation, on June 25, 1991, the Croatian Parliament adopted a constitutional decision on the sovereignty and independence of the Republic of Croatia, which became formalized on October 8, 1991. However, soon after separation, a new, large-scale war of aggression erupted, accompanied by numerous human casualties and the widespread destruction of material assets - events that Korenica and Lika remember with deep pain, echoing the many armed conflicts of their past. The Homeland War lasted from 1991 to 1995, during which Korenica was under occupation for nearly the entire period.

The oldest Croatian national park, one of our 2Parks, the Plitvice Lakes National Park, was also badly damaged in the war. Among other damages in the Park, the Occupation Army had also completely destroyed the unique forest vegetation of the protected park architecture - the Taxus baccata group (Yew trees) in Sertic Poljana.

Taxus baccata is often called a sacred tree; it grows very slowly and can live up to 3,000 years. Today is highly endangered and specially protected in all natural habitats.


Croatia’s sovereignty and independence underwent a new transformation in 2013. A little more than two decades after achieving independence, Croatia entered a new union, becoming the 28th member of the community of nations - the European Union. This time, the founding countries were Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, which had established the European Economic Community (EEC) back in 1957. Croatia ceded part of its sovereign rights to the EU, particularly in the areas of economic and monetary policy, trade, and environmental protection, while accepting limited national control over certain policies. What the future of this union will be - considering the destinies of all previous ones - remains to be seen.

The citizens of Korenica, Lika, and Croatia as a whole, like all other peoples deeply scarred by the same multi-generational traumas of war and poverty, require great patience and steadfast will in order, and above all, to become aware of their personal power. From this follows an awareness of the responsibility that every citizen carries in ensuring the progress, development, and prosperity of their community and their country. Our region is still recovering from the most recent, horrid, war, and therefore the work of cultivating a culture of peace and forgiveness is of exceptional and critical importance.

With the awakening of a new consciousness, there is absolutely no bigger priority than everlasting peace and unity; only under such conditions can we create a prosperous society that will benefit both humans and nature. 

Come and meet the people of Lika! Stay a bit longer to reveal the true face of these ancient settlements and the wonderful people who have prepared for you various products and services!

Welcome to the home of the Plitvice Lakes National Park!

References

1. CHM (2003, Sep 9). Bitka na Krbavskom polju 9. rujna 1493. Izlaganje za vrijeme obilježavanja 510. obljetnice Krbavske bitke. ˂https://chm-udbina.com.hr/index.php/chm/bitka-na-krbavskom-polju/˃
2. Boeree C. G. (2013).Y-dna haplotypes and the Indo-European languages. CGBoer. ˂https://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/ydnapie.html˃
3. Božić M. (2020, Feb 10). Što znači riječ Hrvat, kada se prvi put spominje i što povjesničarima stvara nedoumice? Solin Live.  ˂http://www.solin-live.com/index.php/sto-znaci-rijec-hrvat-kada-se-prvi-put-spominje-i-sto-povjesnicarima-stvara-nedoumice/˃
4. CHM (2003, Sep 9). Bitka na Krbavskom polju 9. rujna 1493. Izlaganje za vrijeme obilježavanja 510. obljetnice Krbavske bitke. ˂https://chm-udbina.com.hr/index.php/chm/bitka-na-krbavskom-polju/˃
5. Eupedia. (n.d.). Distribution maps of Y-chromosomal haplogroups in Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. Retrieved Jun 16, 2025.from: ˂https://www.eupedia.com/europe/maps_Y-DNA_haplogroups.shtml#I2a˃
6. Fisković I. (2007). O primjerima «damnatio memoriae» iz hrvatske baštine. [Izvorni znanstveni rad, Filozofski fakultet Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, Odsjek za povijest umjetnosti]. Portal hrvatskih znanstvenih i stručnih časopisa - Hrčak, pp. 481-498. ˂https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/40833˃
7. Glamuzina G. (2017, Aug 9). Monumentalne ilirske građevine otkrivene u Drinovcima kod Gruda. Megaliti Hercegovine. ˂https://megaliti-hercegovina.blogspot.com/2017/08/monumentalne-ilirske-graevine-otkrivene.html˃
8. Grad Vinkovci (n.d.). Kalendar Orion. Retrieved Mar 23, 2025. from: ˂https://www.grad-vinkovci.hr/hr/kalendar-orion˃
9. Hemen I. (2013, Sep 10). Kasni neolitik / Pored Iloka pronađena prapovijesna peć stara 6500 godina. Danas.hr. ˂https://net.hr/danas/pored-iloka-pronadjena-prapovijesna-pec-stara-6500-godina-0f6ef73c-b9f6-11ec-b949-0242ac120024˃
10. Holjevac Ž. (2020, Oct 22). Umjetnost i snaga – osam stoljeća hrvatsko-mađarskih veza. Matica hrvatska - vijenac 695. Retrieved Jul 25, 2022. from: <https://www.matica.hr/vijenac/695/umjetnost-i-snaga-osam-stoljeca-hrvatsko-maarskih-veza-30848/>
11. Hrvatska enciklopedija, mrežno izdanje, (n.d.). Korenica. Leksikografski zavod Miroslav Krleža, Zagreb. Retrieved April 8, 2022 from: ˂http://www.enciklopedija.hr/Natuknica.aspx?ID=33168
12. Hrvatska enciklopedija (2021), mrežno izdanje. Mohačka bitka. Leksikografski zavod Miroslav Krleža, Zagreb. Retrieved April 8, 2022 from ˂http://www.enciklopedija.hr/Natuknica.aspx?ID=41521˃
13. HRT. (2018). Hrvatski velikani 2 - Ante Starčević. [Video]. Školski HRT. ˂https://skolski.hrt.hr/emisije/876/ante-starcevic-88 ˃
14. Klaić V. (1982). Povijest Hrvata od najstarijih vremena do svršetka XIX stoljeća, 1-5. Nakladni zavod Matice hrvatske, Zagreb, pp. 251-252
15. Klasić H., Bukovčan M. (2021, Sep 9). NDH 1-12. [Dokumentarna serija] HTV. ˂https://hrti.hrt.hr/home?id=47bd4c26-4888-ffe3-f77f-808d94d0b74a˃
16. Kruhek  M., Horvat Z. (2009.). Srednjovjekovne hrvatske župe Lika i Krbava (Stari gradovi Krbave). Institut društvenih znanosti Ivo Pilar, pp. 243-275. ˃ https://www.pilar.hr/wp-content/images/stories/dokumenti/lika/lika_1_mail_r_239.pdf˂
17. Macan, T. (1992). Povijest hrvatskog naroda. Nakladni zavod Matice hrvatske – Školska knjiga, Zagreb, pp. 15-398
18. Marijan B. (2011.). Gradina u Ošanićima – transformacija prapovijesnoga gradinskog u urbano naselje.  Portal hrvatskih znanstvenih i stručnih časopisa - Hrčak, pp. 177-187 ˂https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/118555˃
19. Matasović R. (2019., Jun). Ime Hrvata. U Z. Jakobović (ur), JEZIK, časopis za kulturu hrvatskoga književnog jezika. (81 – 97). Zagreb, Hrvatsko filološko društvo. ˂https://hfiloloskod.hr/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Jezik-god.-66.-br.-3.-2019.pdf˃
20. Mesihović, S. (2018). Baton Dezitijatski, dezitijatska politija i vizija ustanka / Bato the Daesitiate, the Daesitiate Polity and Vision of the Uprising. Journal of the Faculty of Philosophy in Sarajevo (History, History of Art, Archeology) / Radovi (Historija, Historija Umjetnosti, Arheologija), ISSN 2303-6974 on-Line, 5, 87–109. ˂https://doi.org/10.46352/23036974.2018.87˃
21. Muzej vučedolske kulture (n.d.). O nama. Retrieved Mar 24, 2025. from: ˂https://vucedol.hr/˃
22. N1. (2019., Mar 29). Crvena linija: Ko je najstariji narod na Balkanu [Videosnimka]. YouTube. ˂https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6_NVkC8KL_s˃
23. Olujić, B. (2007). Povijest Japoda. Srednja Europa, Zagreb, pp. 71-198
24. Omissi, A. (2016). DAMNATIO MEMORIAE OR CREATIO MEMORIAE? MEMORY SANCTIONS AS CREATIVE PROCESSES IN THE FOURTH CENTURY AD. The Cambridge Classical Journal, 62, 170–199. doi:10.1017/S1750270516000038
25. Prerad D., Šuvalić I. M. (2021, June 22). Istina je voda duboka, Hrvatska je bila na strani dobra. Večernji list. ˂ https://www.vecernji.hr/vijesti/˃
26. Primorac D., Marjanović D., Rudan P., Villems R. i Underhill P. A. (2020.). Y kromosom i genetsko podrijetlo Hrvata. Dragan Primorac. ˂https://www.draganprimorac.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Y-kromosom_web.pdf˃
27. Raunig B. (2004.). Umjetnost i Religija Prahistorijskih Japoda. Djela LXXXII, knj. 8. Sarajevo: Akademija nauka i umjetnosti Bosne i Hercegovine
28. Şeker N. (2013) Forced Population Movements in the Ottoman Empire and the Early Turkish Republic: An Attempt at Reassessment through Demographic Engineering. European Journal of Turkish Studies. ˂https://journals.openedition.org/ejts/4396˃
29. Varvaria-Breberium-Bribir (n.d.). Chronology. Retrieved Mar 23, 2025. from: ˂https://varvaria-breberium-bribir.mf.no/history/˃
30. Vlada RH (2021, June 22) Hrvatskoj je potrebno jedinstvo, pozitivna energija i optimizam za izgradnju bolje, tolerantnije i demokratske Hrvatske. ˂https://vlada.gov.hr/vijesti/˃ 
31. Zadarski.hr. (2015., Dec 18). Prezentacija rezultata istraživanja Otočić Ričul: Potopljeno naselje pod morem. ˂https://zadarski.slobodnadalmacija.hr/zadar/regional/prezentacija-rezultata-istrazivanja-otocic-ricul-potopljeno-naselje-pod-morem-441162˃